In 1995 China issued a white paper titled, China:
Arms Control and Disarmament, which mainly describes China's substantial
efforts and progress in the sphere of arms control and disarmament. Here
China wishes to present a further introduction to and exposition of her
work in defense.
I. The
International Security Situation
Peace and development are the major themes of the present era. The
striving for peace and cooperation, and the promotion of development have
become irresistible historical trends.
In general, the present international security situation has continued
to tend toward relaxation. With the end of the cold war, a tendency toward
multipolarity has further developed both globally or regionally in the
political, economic and other fields as various world forces are
experiencing new splits and realignments. The relations among the major
powers are undergoing significant and profound readjustments; various
kinds of partnerships are gradually developing along the line of
institutionalization; and each country is enhancing its consciousness of
independence, unity for strength, and coordinated development. The overall
strength of the developing countries is growing, and they are becoming an
important force on the international stage. The sustained development of
the multipolarity tendency and economic globalization has further deepened
their mutual reliance and mutual condition and helped toward world peace,
stability and prosperity. The factors for safeguarding world peace are
growing constantly.
The influence of armed conflicts and local wars on the overall
international situation has been remarkably weakened. In the past, when
the two major military blocs confronted each other, armed conflicts and
local wars in some regions seriously disturbed world security and
stability. For a time in the post-cold war period, regional conflicts were
still frequent, even showing a trend of escalation. In the past few years,
however, some conflicts and wars that had lasted for many years have been
settled, and some are being put on the track of political settlement, or
are gradually being cooled down. At present, armed conflicts and local
wars touched off by disputes about territory, natural resources, ethnicity
or religion are relatively limited in terms of scale, intensity and
region, and are under control to varying degrees. The international
community is making more and more efforts to mediate such disputes, with
its capability to do so improving constantly.
Military factors still occupy an important position in state security.
In the new international security environment, while stressing the
settlement of disputes through political, economic and diplomatic means,
most countries still regard military means and the reinforcement of
military strength as important ways to safeguard their own security and
national interests. A profound reform in the military field led by the
development of high-tech weapons is taking place throughout the world.
This reform, which is developing rapidly, will exert an important and
profound influence on weaponry, military system and setup, combat training
and military theory. To adapt to the new situation and strive for their
own advantages, many countries have readjusted their defense policies and
military strategies, reduced the scale of armaments and paid more
attention to improving the quality of their armed forces.
Economic security is becoming daily more important for state security.
In international relations, geopolitical, military security and
ideological factors still play a role that cannot be ignored, but the role
of economic factors is becoming more outstanding, along with growing
economic contacts among nations. The competition to excel in overall
national strength, focused on economy and science and technology, is being
further intensified; globewide struggles centered on markets, natural
resources and other economic rights and interests are daily becoming
sharper; and the quickening of economic globalization and intensification
of the formation of regional blocs render the economic development of a
country more vulnerable to outside influences and impacts. Therefore, more
and more countries regard economic security as an important aspect of
state security. The financial crisis in Asia has made the issue of
economic security more prominent, and has set a new task for governments
of all countries to strengthen coordination and face challenges together
in the course of economic globalization.
The political security situation in the Asia-Pacific region is
relatively stable. The development of the trend toward multipolarity in
this region is being quickened, and the relations among the big nations
are being readjusted strategically and gradually becoming stable. Despite
the emergence of a nancial crisis in Asia, the Asia-Pacific region remains
one of the areas with the greatest economic development vitality in the
world, and developing the economy is the most important task for each
country. The countries in the Asia-Pacific region rely more and more on
each other economically, and, to solve their disputes by peaceful means,
to stress the search for the meeting points of their common interests and
to strengthen cooperation and coordination are becoming the main current
of the relations among the countries of the region. Various forms of
regional and sub-regional multilateral cooperation are constantly being
developed, and security dialogues and cooperation are being carried out at
many levels and through many channels.
However, there still exist some factors of instability both globally
and regionally: Hegemonism and power politics remain the main source of
threats to world peace and stability; cold war mentality and its influence
still have a certain currency, and the enlargement of military blocs and
the strengthening of military alliances have added factors of instability
to international security; some countries, by relying on their military
advantages, pose military threats to other countries, even resorting to
armed intervention; the old unfair and irrational international economic
order still damages the interests of developing countries; local conflicts
caused by ethnic, religious, territorial, natural resources and other
factors arise now and then, and questions left over by history among
countries remain unsolved; terrorism, arms proliferation, smuggling and
trafficking in narcotics, environmental pollution, waves of refugees, and
other transnational issues also pose new threats to international
security.
In May 1998, in defiance of strong opposition by the international
community India flagrantly carried out nuclear tests, thus provoking a
nuclear arms race in South Asia. Then Pakistan followed suit, in response
to India's nuclear tests. The nuclear tests successively conducted by
India and Pakistan have seriously impeded the international non-nuclear
arms proliferation efforts and produced grave consequences on peace and
stability in the South Asian region and the rest of the world. The task
for the international community to strengthen non-proliferation mechanisms
has become even more pressing now.
History has proved that the concepts and systems of security with
military alliances as the basis and increasing military might as the means
could not be conducive to peace during the cold war. Under the new
situation, especially, enlarging military blocs and strengthening military
alliances run counter to the tide of the times. Security cannot be
guaranteed by an increase in arms, nor by military alliances. Security
should be based on mutual trust and common interests. We should promote
trust through dialogue, seek security through cooperation, respect each
other's sovereignty, solve disputes through peaceful means and strive for
common development. To obtain lasting peace, it is imperative to abandon
the cold war mentality, cultivate a new concept of security and seek a new
way to safeguard peace. China believes that this new concept and way
should include the following:
-- The relations among nations should be established on the basis of
the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence: mutual respect for
territorial integrity and sovereignty, mutual non-aggression,
non-interference in each other's internal affairs, equality and mutual
benefit, and peaceful coexistence. These are the political basis and
premise of global and regional security. Each country has the right to
choose its own social system, development strategy and way of life, and no
country should interfere in the internal affairs of any other country in
any way or under any pretext, much less resort to military threats or
aggression.
-- In the economic field, all countries should strengthen mutually
beneficial cooperation, open up to each other, eliminate inequalities and
discriminatory policies in economic and trade relations, gradually reduce
the development gaps between countries and seek common prosperity. Such
steps can form the economic basis of global and regional security.
Maintaining a normal and sound economic, trade and financial order calls
for not only a perfect macro-economic management system as well as a sound
system of economic operations, it also calls for strengthening regional
and international economic contacts and cooperation, so as to jointly
create a stable and secure external economic environment.
-- All countries should promote mutual understanding and trust through
dialogue and cooperation, and seek the settlement of divergences and
disputes among nations through peaceful means. These are the realistic
ways to guarantee peace and security. Security is mutual, and security
dialogues and cooperation should be aimed at promoting trust, not at
creating confrontations, still less at directing the spearhead against a
third country or infringing upon the security interests of any other
nation.
As a country in the Asia-Pacific region, China places great importance
on the region's security, stability, peace and development. China's
Asia-Pacific security strategy has three objectives, i.e., China's own
stability and prosperity, peace and stability in its surrounding regions,
and conducting dialogue and cooperation with all countries in the
Asia-Pacific region. Hence China devotes its efforts to promoting equal
treatment and friendly cooperation with other countries, and attaches
importance to developing healthy and stable relations with all countries
and all major forces in the region; actively participates in regional
economic cooperation and promotes an open type of regionalism; insists on
handling and settling disputes among countries through peaceful means; and
takes an active part in the dialogue and cooperation process aimed at
regional security.
On the basis of equal consultation, mutual understanding and mutual
accommodation, China has solved in an appropriate manner border issues
with most of its neighbors. As for remaining disputes on territorial and
marine rights and interests between China and neighboring countries, China
maintains that they are to be solved through consultation by putting the
interests of the whole above everything else, so that the disputes will
not hamper the normal development of state relations or the stability of
the region. China has clearly stated that relevant disputes should be
properly solved through peaceful negotiation and consultation, in
accordance with commonly accepted international laws and modern maritime
laws, including the basic principles and legal systems as prescribed in
the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.
Taiwan is an inseparable part of Chinese territory. It is a lofty
mission and a common aspiration of all Chinese people, including the
Taiwan compatriots, to put an end to the cleavage between the two sides of
the Taiwan Straits and realize the reunification of the motherland. The
Chinese government adheres to its stand for solving the issue of Taiwan
according to the basic principle of "peaceful reunification, and one
country, two systems,'' and resolutely opposes any attempt, by words or
deeds, to split the country by creating an "independent Taiwan,'' "two
Chinas,'' or "one China, one Taiwan.'' The issue of Taiwan is entirely an
internal affair of China. Directly or indirectly incorporating the Taiwan
Straits into the security and cooperation sphere of any country or any
military alliance is an infringement upon and interference in China's
sovereignty. The Chinese government seeks to achieve the reunification of
the country by peaceful means, but will not commit itself not to resort to
force. Every sovereign state has the right to use all means it thinks
necessary, including military means, to safeguard its own sovereignty and
territorial integrity. In deciding which way to deal with the issue of
Taiwan, the Chinese government has no obligation to make a commitment to
any country or any person attempting to split China. The Chinese
government opposes any country selling arms to Taiwan, which not only
violates the basic norms of international law but also threatens China's
security and regional peace and stability.
The Chinese government steadfastly follows an independent foreign
policy of peace, and stands for establishing and developing relations of
friendship and cooperation with all countries on the basis of the Five
Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and other commonly recognized
international relationship norms. China is willing to make unswerving
efforts to safeguard world peace and promote international security
together with other countries.
II. National Defense Policy
The Chinese government firmly pursues a
national defense policy that is defensive in nature. The Constitution of
the People's Republic of China (PRC) clearly specifies the tasks of the
armed forces of the PRC as being to consolidate national defense, resist
aggression, defend the motherland, safeguard the people's peaceful labor,
participate in national construction and strive to serve the people.
China's state interests, social system, foreign policy and historical and
cultural traditions postulate that China will inevitably adopt such a
national defense policy.
China has always attached primary importance to safeguarding the
state's sovereignty, unity, territorial integrity and security. Following
the Opium War in 1840, China was gradually reduced to a semi-colonial and
semi-feudal country, and the Chinese nation was subject to the imperialist
powers' invasion, oppression, bullying and humiliation time and time
again. After a protracted, persistent and heroic struggle, the Chinese
people won the independence for their country and the emancipation of the
nation; therefore they hold dear their hard-earned right to independence.
Defending the motherland, resisting aggression, safeguarding unity and
opposing split are the starting point and underpinning of China's defense
policy.
China being at the primary stage of socialism, the fundamental task of
the state is to concentrate its strength on the socialist modernization
program. The situation in which China has a large population, a poor
foundation, uneven regional development and underdeveloped productive
forces will continue for a comparatively long period of time to come.
China is now confronted with the extremely heavy task of economic
construction, so the work in defense must be subordinate to and in the
service of the nation's overall economic construction. The social system,
development strategy and way of life that China has chosen conform to the
actual conditions of the country, and no factors prompting invasion of
another country can emerge.
The development of China requires an environment of long-term
international peace, especially a favorable peripheral environment. China
unswervingly pursues an independent foreign policy of peace, advocates
handling international affairs in light of the fundamental interests of
the Chinese and other people of the world, and refrains from forming
alliances with any big power or any group of countries. China holds that
conflicts and disputes among countries should be solved in a peaceful way
through consultation, and opposes the threat or use of force, hegemonism
and power politics. China advocates establishing a new fair and rational
international political and economic order, and developing relations of
friendship and cooperation with all countries on the basis of the Five
Principles of Peaceful Coexistence. China will always be an important
force defending world peace and regional stability. Even when China
becomes strong and powerful in the future, it will by no means take to the
road of foreign aggression and expansion.
The defensive nature of China's national defense policy also springs
from the country's historical and cultural traditions. China is a country
with 5,000 years of civilization, and a peace-loving tradition. Ancient
Chinese thinkers advocated ``associating with benevolent gentlemen and
befriending good neighbors,'' which shows that throughout history the
Chinese people have longed for peace in the world and for relations of
friendship with the people of other countries. In military affairs, this
maxim means solving disputes by non-military means, being wary of war and
strategically gaining mastery by striking only after the enemy has struck.
During the course of several thousand years, loving peace, stressing
defense, seeking unification, promoting national unity, and jointly
resisting foreign aggression have always been the main ideas of China's
defense concept. The defense policy of New China has carried forward and
developed such excellent Chinese historical and cultural traditions.
China's defense policy has mainly the following
aspects:
-- Consolidating national defense, resisting aggression, curbing armed
subversion, and defending the state's sovereignty, unity, territorial
integrity and security. These are the basic objectives of China's defense
policy, as well as the main tasks the Chinese Constitution has entrusted
to China's armed forces. China spares no effort to avoid and curb war, and
to solve international disputes and questions left over by history through
peaceful means. However, as long as hegemonism and power politics still
exist, a country must have the capability to defend its sovereignty,
unity, territorial integrity and security by military means. The
modernization program of China's national defense work is entirely for
self-defense, and arises from the need to safeguard the country's
modernization drive and security. The size of China's armed forces is
suited to the needs of defending the country's security and interests.
China builds and consolidates its national defense independently and
through self-reliance.
-- Subordinating national defense work to, and placing it in the
service of, the nation's overall economic construction, and achieving the
coordinated development of these two kinds of work. This is China's
long-term basic policy for its work in defense. The modernization of the
national defense of a country requires the support of its economic and
technological forces; and the modernization level of national defense can
only be improved gradually along with the increase of the country's
economic strength. The Chinese government insists that economic
construction be taken as the center, that defense work be subordinate to
and in the service of the nation's overall economic construction and that
the armed forces actively participate in and support the nation's economic
construction. While concentrating its efforts on economic construction,
the state also endeavors to improve its national defense work and to
promote a coordinated development of the two.
-- Implementing the military strategy of active defense. Strategically
China pursues the defensive policy featuring self-defense and gaining
mastery by striking only after the enemy has struck, and adheres to the
principle: ``We will not attack unless we are attacked; if we are
attacked, we will certainly counter-attack.'' China possesses a small
number of nuclear weapons, entirely for meeting the needs of self-defense.
China upholds the principle of self-defense by the whole people and the
strategic concept of people's war, and works hard to enhance the defense
consciousness of the whole people, perfect the defense mobilization system
and intensify the building of the reserve force for defense. On the basis
of its existing weaponry, China carries forward and develops its fine
traditions. It seeks to adapt to profound changes in the world's military
sphere, and makes proper preparations for defensive combat in the
situation where modern technology, especially high technology, prevails.
-- Streamlining the army the Chinese way. During the new historical
period, the Chinese army is working hard to improve its quality and
endeavoring to streamline the army the Chinese way, aiming to form a
revolutionized, modernized and regularized people's army with Chinese
characteristics. Reducing quantity and improving quality is a basic
principle upon which the army is to be modernized. The Chinese army
strengthens itself by relying on science and technology, and strives to
make the transition from a numerically superior type to a qualitatively
efficient type, and from a manpower-intensive type to a
technology-intensive type. In view of the characteristics of modern wars,
no effort will be spared to improve the modernization level of weaponry,
reform and perfect the army system and setup, and improve the training of
troops and curricula and teaching methods of military academies.
-- Safeguarding world peace, and opposing aggression and expansion.
China upholds the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and handles
foreign military relations and engages in military exchanges and
cooperation independently. China does not seek hegemonism, nor does it
seek military blocs or military expansion. China does not station any
troops or set up any military bases in any foreign country. China opposes
the arms race, and maintains that effective arms control and disarmament
should be carried out in accordance with the principles of fairness,
rationality, comprehensiveness and balance. China supports the
international community in its activities to promote world and regional
peace, security and stability, and also in its efforts to fairly and
rationally solve international disputes and to bring about arms control
and disarmament.
III.
National Defense Construction
China's national
defense construction is an important part of its modernization program.
Given the new historical conditions the Chinese army upholds the absolute
leadership of the Communist Party of China (CPC), implements the strategic
principle of active defense, emphasizes quality in army building,
administrates the armed forces along legal lines, engages in army building
through diligence and thrift, and actively participates in and supports
national economic construction. As a result, it has made great
contributions to the country's security, stability and modernization
drive.
Defense System
In accordance with the Constitution, the National Defense Law and other
relevant laws, China has established and improved its national defense
system. The state exercises unified leadership over defense-related
activities.
The National People's Congress (NPC) of the PRC is the highest organ of
state power. It decides on the questions of war and peace, and exercises
other defense-related functions and powers provided for in the
Constitution. The Standing Committee of the NPC is the NPC's permanent
body. It decides on the proclamation of a state of war, decides on general
or partial mobilization, and exercises other defense-related functions and
powers provided for in the Constitution. The president of the state, in
accordance with decisions of the NPC and its Standing Committee, proclaims
a state of war, issues mobilization orders and exercises other
defense-related functions and powers provided for in the Constitution. The
State Council directs and administrates national defense work, and the
Central Military Commission (CMC) directs and assumes unified command of
the nation's armed forces.
The Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) is organized in accordance
with a system whereby the General Staff Department, the General Political
Department, the General Logistics Department and the General Armament
Department are placed under the leadership of the CMC. The General Staff
Department organizes and leads the building-up of the nation's armed
forces, and organizes and directs their military operations. The General
Political Department administrates the army's Party work and organizes and
conducts its political work. The General Logistics Department organizes
and leads the army's logistics work. The General Armament Department
organizes and leads the army's work in military equipment.
The armed forces of the PRC are composed of the PLA, both the active
and reserve components, the Chinese People's Armed Police Force and the
militia. The active components of the PLA comprise the state's standing
army, which mainly undertakes the task of defensive combat, and helps to
maintain social order, if necessary, according to law; reservists undergo
military training in peacetime according to relevant regulations, and help
to maintain social order, if necessary, according to law, and in wartime
they shall be incorporated in the forces in active service in pursuance of
the state's mobilization order. The Chinese People's Armed Police Force
undertakes the tasks for maintenance of security and social order
entrusted by the state. The militiamen, under the command of military
organs, perform combat service support and defensive operations, and help
to maintain social order. The PLA, comprised of the Army, the Navy, the
Air Force and the Second Artillery Force, is organized in seven military
area commands nationwide.
The state exercises unified leadership and planned control over defense
research and production. The State Council leads and administrates defense
research and production, as well as defense expenditure and assets. The
CMC approves the military equipment system of the armed forces and
military equipment development plans and programs, leads and administrates
defense research and production in coordination with the State Council,
and manages defense outlays and assets jointly with the State Council. The
state practices a state military supplies order system to guarantee the
acquisition of weapons and other war materials. The state practices a
financial allocation system for defense spending. It decides the size,
structure and location of the defense assets and the adjustment and
disposal of these assets in accordance with the needs of national defense
and economic construction.
The State Council and the CMC jointly lead mobilization preparation and
implementation work. In peacetime the state conducts mobilization
preparation and integrates armed mobilization of the people, mobilization
of the national economy, civil air defense, national defense
transportation and other mobilization preparations into the state's
overall development plan and program. It improves the mobilization system
step by step, and establishes a strategic materials storage system. The
state attaches importance to national defense education and conducts it in
line with its plan for economic and social development.
Military Legislative Work
China attaches importance to the building of a military legal system,
regarding the improvement of the work in this regard as a basic approach
and important guarantee for realizing defense modernization and the
regularization of the armed forces. In order to meet the needs of defense
and army building in the new historical period, the state has laid down
the principles for administrating the armed forces along legal lines. It
has improved its military legislative work comprehensively to ensure that
China's defense and army building advance along a legal track and to
propel it in that direction.
Since 1982 the military legislation system has been further fine-tuned
as part of the state legislation system: The NPC and its Standing
Committee have formulated laws on defense and army building; the CMC has
formulated military laws and regulations, or jointly worked out military
administrative laws and regulations with the State Council; all general
departments, all services and arms and all military area commands of the
PLA have drawn up military rules and regulations or jointly worked out
military administrative rules and regulations with the relevant
departments of the State Council. The Interim Regulations on Legislative
Procedures of the PLA promulgated by the CMC contains clear-cut provisions
on legislation programming and planning and the drafting, examination,
promulgation and enforcement of laws and regulations, which embody the
standardization and systemization of military legislation.
Over the past ten-odd years, remarkable achievements have been made in
military legislation. The NPC and its Standing Committee have formulated
12 defense and army-building laws and legality-related decisions,
including the National Defense Law of the PRC, Military Service Law of the
PRC, Military Facilities Protection Law of the PRC, Civil Air Defense Law
of the PRC, Law on the Reserve Officers of the PRC, the Garrison Law of
the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the PRC, Military Service
Regulations Pertaining to PLA Officers in Active Service, and Regulations
on the Military Ranks of PLA Officers. The State Council and the CMC have
worked out 40-odd military administrative laws and regulations, such as
the Regulations on National Defense Transportation, Regulations on
Conscription Work, Regulations on Militia Work, and Military Service
Regulations Pertaining to PLA Soldiers in Active Service. The CMC has
formulated 70-odd military laws and regulations, including the Regulations
of the PLA Headquarters, Regulations on Political Work in the PLA,
Logistics Regulations of the PLA, Routine Service Regulations of the PLA,
Discipline Regulations of the PLA, and Drill Regulations of the PLA. The
various general departments, services and arms and military area commands
have drawn up 1,000-some items of military rules and regulations. Now,
China has laws to go by basically in the principal aspects of its defense
and army building, as a military legal system with Chinese characteristics
now is initially in place. While adhering to the principle of suiting
military legislation to its national and military conditions, China also
lays stress on bringing it into line with the international
military-related treaties and agreements that China has acceded to, so as
to make China's military laws consistent in content with international
legal norms and practices.
In the sphere of national defense construction, China has set up and
improved its defense leading system and operating mechanism at both the
central and local levels in accordance with the law, together with basic
national defense systems and institutions, such as those of military
service, mobilization, research and production, assets management and
military facilities protection, as well as those of giving special care to
the bereaved families of servicemen. In the area of army building, the
principles defining the nature, tasks and building of the armed forces
have been determined in accordance with the law, and a series of important
systems and institutions are in operation, such as those of military ranks
and insignia, military training, headquarters work, political work,
logistic support, garrison service, and military discipline-related
rewards and penalties, which ensure that national defense activities and
army building can be carried out in an orderly manner, within a legal
framework and along a regulatory line.
In order to guarantee the unified implementation of the nation's
relevant laws and regulations in the armed forces, the state has
established mechanisms of military law enforcement and military
judicature, military legal institutions and legal service organizations,
forming a fairly complete military legal system in the armed forces. The
military-law enforcement system is mainly formed of relevant leading
organs and functional departments at various levels. Besides, discipline
inspection organs and financial auditing organs have been set up in units
at and above the corps level, which carry out supervision and inspection
over law enforcement, and garrison service organs in garrison units in
large and medium-sized cities, which check, inspect and handle cases of
infringements of military discipline by military personnel as well as
cases of violations of relevant rules by military vehicles. The military
judicial system is composed of military courts and procuratorates
established by the state at the three levels of the PLA, the military area
command and the corps, which, together with the PLA's security departments
at various levels, exercise their respective functions and powers and
handle criminal cases involving military personnel in accordance with the
law. The military legal system is composed of the legal organs or
personnel authorized by the Bureau of Legislative Affairs of the CMC, the
various general departments, services and arms and military areas
commands, and are in charge of the legal work of the entire PLA as well as
the various army units. The legal service organizations are composed of
legal advice offices and legal counseling stations of the army units at
various levels, which provide legal advice and services to help leading
military organs at various levels to make decisions as well as for
individual officers and men. By the end of 1997, over 240 legal advice
offices with more than 1,360 lawyers had been set up by the PLA units, in
addition to more than 4,250 legal counseling stations with 65,700-some
legal consultants at the grassroots level.
China attaches importance to promoting publicity and education in the
law in the armed forces, bringing it into the orbit of the army's regular
education and training. In order to equip officers and men with knowledge
of the law in accordance with the state's unified plan on publicity and
education in the law for all citizens, the Chinese armed forces carried
out two sessions of the Five-Year Legal Education Program from 1986 to
1995. The Third Five-Year Legal Education Program started early in 1996.
Defense Expenditure
China has always stressed rationally scaled expenditure on defense. The
costs of defense are allocated based on the needs of defense and the
country's financial capacities and the principle of overall balance. Since
the introduction of the policies of reform and opening to the outside
world, the Chinese government has strictly controlled its defense
expenditure at a comparatively low level so that it can concentrate on
economic construction.
The Chinese government has consistently stuck to the principle of
strict control, strict management and strict supervision of defense
spending; it has established and perfected a complete administrative and
regulatory system. China's defense budget and final accounts are examined
and approved by the NPC, and the state and army's auditing organs exercise
strict audit and supervision of the execution of the budget.
China's expenditure on national defense falls into the following
categories: personnel expenses, mainly including pay, food and clothing of
military and non-military personnel; costs for maintenance of activities,
mainly including military training, construction and maintenance of
facilities and running expenses; and costs for equipment, including
research and experimentation, procurement, maintenance, transportation and
storage. In terms of the scope of logistic support, these expenditures
cover not only active service personnel, but also militia and reserve
requirements. In addition, a large amount of spendings are used to fund
activities associated with social welfare, mainly pensions for some of the
retired officers, schools and kindergartens for children of military
personnel, training personnel competent for both military and civilian
services, supporting national economic construction, and participation in
emergency rescues and disaster relief efforts.
Plain living and hard working is a fine tradition of the Chinese armed
forces. China's military personnel have launched a sequence of mass
movements for practicing economy, such as conducting checkups of
warehouses to make better use of the stored goods and repairing or
utilizing old or discarded things. They have also done everything they can
to join in agricultural and sideline production or engage in business,
mainly for the purpose of providing employment for dependents of military
personnel and improving the material and cultural lives of officers and
men in grassroots units.
Since the introduction of the policies of reform and opening to the
outside world the Chinese government has placed work in national defense
in a position subordinate to and in the service of overall national
economic construction and has made relatively major reductions in defense
inputs. From 1979 to 1994 defense spending increased by 6.22 percent
annually in absolute terms, which represented in real terms a negative
growth of 1.08 percent compared to the 7.3 percent annual increase of the
general retail price index of commodities in the same period.
China's annual defense outlay from 1995 to 1997 came to RMB 63.672,
72.006 and 81.257 billion yuan, respectively. The annual increase in
defense outlay went for the most part to ensure that the living standards
of military personnel keep up with the nation's social and economic
development and with the increase of the per capita incomes of urban and
rural residents, so as to improve the living conditions of officers and
men. Even so, defense spending in the total state expenditure declined
annually in the same period, accounting for 9.3, 9.1 and 8.8 percent
respectively.
The composition of China's defense expenditure in 1997 (Table 1) was as
follows: 29.162 billion yuan for personnel expenses, accounting for 35.89
percent; 26.536 billion yuan for maintenance of activities, 32.66 percent;
and 25.559 billion yuan for equipment, 31.45 percent. From the above, we
can see that most of the defense outlay went to the personnel's living
costs and maintenance of normal activities. In addition, more than four
billion yuan, or about 5 percent, was spent to fund activities associated
with social welfare.
Table 1 Composition of China's Defense Expenditure in 1997
(unit: billion yuan)
Compared with the defense expenditures of some other countries, China
has a fairly low level of defense spending (Table 2).
Table 2 Comparison of China's Defense Expenditure with Those of
Some Other Countries in 1997 (unit: US$ billion)
Note: The
exchange rate, calculated by China's State Administration of Exchange
Control, was one US dollar=RMB 8.29 yuan in 1997.
Based on the above exchange rate, China's defense expenditure in 1997
was US$ 9.80 billion, which was 3.67 percent of the USA's, 61.25 percent
of Russia's, 27.53 percent of Britain's, 26.7 percent of France's, 22.79
percent of Japan's, and 56.98 percent of the Republic of Korea's (ROK).
China's defense expenditure is low in relative terms, as well as in
absolute terms. In the past two decades the percentage of China's defense
expenditure in the gross domestic product (GDP) has declined successively
(Table 3). Compared with the USA, Russia, Britain, France, Japan and the
ROK, China has a comparatively low burden of defense expenditure (Table
4).
Table 3 The Percentage of China's Defense Expenditure in the
GDP in 1978-1997
Table 4 Comparison of the Percentage of China's Defense
Expenditure in the GDP and Total Financial Expenditure with Those of Some
Other Countries in 1997
Notes: 1. Percentages of defense
expenditure in total financial expenditure.
Percentages of defense
expenditure in the GDP.
2. The above data are taken from defense,
financial or other government reports announced by said countries.
Reducing Military Personnel
In September 1997 China solemnly announced that it would reduce the
number of its military personnel by 500,000 within the coming three years
on the basis of its disarmament move in the 1980s, which had cut the
number by one million. This important strategic decision of unilateral
disarmament once again fully expressed China's genuine wish for peace. It
was a new effort made by China to further promote the lowering of the
world's armament level, increase mutual trust and advance the cause of
peace for humanity.
Adhering to the defensive policy for national security, China has
always controlled the numbers and size of its armed forces within the
limit allowed by the national strength and necessary to maintain state
security. After the founding of the PRC in 1949, China undertook two
disarmament steps -- one in 1955 and the other in 1958. In the mid-1980s
China's guideline for army building was strategically shifted from
all-time preparedness against a large-scale war of aggression to peacetime
construction, and the size and structure of the armed forces were adjusted
accordingly. In 1985 the government decided unilaterally to cut its troops
by one million men in real terms. By 1990, the total reduction had reached
1.039 million men. Since 1990 the size of the PLA has further shrunk
through successive adjustments. When the drawdown of 500,000 has been
completed the total size of the PLA will be 2.5 million men.
Different from many other countries, China includes all its border and
coastal defense forces, military service mobilization organs,
administration organs of military-run agricultural and sideline
productions, civil cadres and active service personnel in the reserve
service forces in the overall strength of the PLA.
China's latest disarmament move will be carried out actively and
steadily, and completed within the planned three years. The reductions in
the land, naval and air forces account for 19 percent, 11.6 percent and 11
percent respectively. While the numbers of men are being reduced, steps
are being taken in tandem to optimize the structure, adjust the
composition and intra-relationship, and enhance the competence of the
armed forces by enhancing their scientific and technological knowledge, so
as to raise the modernization of the Chinese armed forces to a new level.
Participating in and Supporting National
Construction
Participating in and supporting the country's construction is an
important task entrusted by the Constitution to the Chinese armed forces,
and a reflection of the fundamental purpose of the people's army -- to
serve the people wholeheartedly. Since the 1980s, while fulfilling its
education and training tasks, the Chinese army has taken an active part in
and fully supported the nation's economic construction, and through this
it has made significant contributions to the country's prosperity and
development.
-- Turning military facilities over to the public or converting them to
civilian use. While cutting down large numbers of personnel, the Chinese
armed forces have transferred part of their military facilities to local
authorities or opened them to the public to support the country's
construction. Over the past 20 years China's armed forces have opened 101
airports to the public, and opened or surrendered 29 harbors and docks,
more than 300 special railway lines, 90 telecommunications lines,
1,000-some warehouses and over three million square meters of land on
former military reserves and some barracks facilities.
-- Participating in emergency rescues and disaster relief work. China
has a vast territory, and local natural disasters are frequent. Whenever a
natural disaster occurs, the armed forces are always in the forefront of
efforts to protect the people's lives and save the state and people's
property. Over the past two decades they have participated in emergency
rescues and disaster reliefs on more than 100,000 occasions. They have
mobilized more than 23 million men, and organized more than one million
vehicle trips, and some 15,000 plane and ship journeys to save more than
10 million people and transport more than 200 million tons of materials
out of perilous conditions.
-- Participating in the construction of key national and local
projects. The armed forces have participated in the construction of many
key national and local projects and undertaken urgent, difficult and
dangerous tasks connected with them. In the past two decades they have
devoted more than 400 million work days and organized 25 million vehicle
trips to participate in and support 10,000-odd key projects, including 150
railway, expressway and underground railway projects, 340 tunnels and
culverts, 260 bridges, 4,100 kilometers of highways and railways, 50
docks, 40 civil and military-civil airports, 500 energy projects, 2,000
water conservancy projects, 20,000 kilometers of optical cable
telecommunication lines and 500 economic and technological development and
tourism development projects.
-- Bringing the superiority of talented personnel and technology into
full play and assisting people with the use of science and technology.
Military academies, scientific research and medical units, as well as
special technological units actively support national construction by
transferring scientific and technological findings to the civilian sector
or by offering it assistance in tackling key technical problems and
personnel training. In the last ten years China's armed forces have
supported more than 1,000 national economic construction projects with
their advanced scientific and technological achievements, solved urgent
and key problems for more than 150 scientific research projects,
transferred 10,000-some scientific and technological findings to the
civilian sector, trained nearly one million scientific and technological
personnel, and helped civilian enterprises complete 900-odd technical
transformation projects which enabled 320 enterprises to get out of the
red and become profitable.
-- Supporting agriculture and assisting in poverty-relief and
development efforts. China is a large agricultural country, so agriculture
has always been the foundation of China's national economy. In the past
decade, to support agricultural development China's armed forces have
dredged more than 500 rivers, built 200,000-odd kilometers of irrigation
channels and dams and dikes, dug more than 1,000 reservoirs, and reclaimed
wasteland and leveled land of over two million hectares, thus laying a
foundation for bumper harvests. Army units stationed in poverty-stricken
areas have made great efforts to assist the local people to develop
production, up to now helping nearly one million people in 23,000 poor
areas get rid of poverty and live more comfortable lives. Especially, they
have concentrated on helping the poor in 20 key areas in the Yimeng and
Taihang mountains and other regions, assisting them to run 3,500-some
village and township enterprises. Moreover, they have carried out 12,000
scientific and technological projects aimed at helping the poor to get rid
of poverty, and offered agro-technique training courses to some 4.5
million people. Military medical organizations at various levels and army
hospitals have sent medical teams to poor areas on 860 occasions, which
have supported more than 8,100 township hospitals with medical equipment
worth upwards of 20 million yuan, and given free training to more than
20,000 medical personnel.
-- Participating in work for the public good. In the past decade the
PLA has devoted more than 100 million work days to the repair of bridges
and roads, the tidying up and beautifying of the environment, and the
repair and construction of water, gas and power supply projects.
Altogether, it has completed over 100,000 projects for the public good and
planted more than 400 million trees. Besides, it has contributed 41.5755
million yuan to the ``Hope Project,'' together with various kinds of goods
and materials worth some 11 million yuan, and helped to build 697 ``Hope''
primary schools, which have enabled more than 115,000 dropouts to return
to school.
-- Training personnel competent both for military and civilian
services. The Chinese armed forces pay great attention to training
qualified personnel for the country's economic construction. To meet the
needs of national economic construction and the wishes of both officers
and men, the Routine Service Regulations of the PLA stipulate that every
Saturday may be reserved for training personnel competent for both
military and civilian services. Saturdays are also when military personnel
are organized to study scientific and cultural subjects. Since the early
1980s, when the PLA started to organize these special training courses,
through on-the-job training nearly one million officers have received
academic certificates at or above the junior college level; more than 85
percent of the ordinary soldiers have received in-service technical
training, and nearly half of them have been awarded technician's
certificates of various grades. When they leave active service they have
become or will become an important force promoting the country's economic
construction and the overall progress of Chinese society.
Stationing a Garrison in Hong Kong
The Chinese government resumed sovereignty over Hong Kong on July 1,
1997, and stationed a garrison of the PLA in the Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region (HKSAR) to take charge of its defense affairs. The
stationing of the PLA troops in the Region is an important symbol of the
Chinese government's resumption of exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong.
It is also an important guarantee for the preservation of state
sovereignty and security and the maintenance of the Region's long-term
prosperity and stability.
The PLA troops entered Hong Kong strictly in accordance with provisions
of the law. The Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
of the PRC, passed at the Third Session of the Seventh NPC in April, 1990,
clearly stipulated that the Central People's Government shall be
responsible for administrating the defense affairs of the HKSAR. The
Garrison Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the PRC was
approved at the 23rd meeting of the Standing Committee of the Eighth NPC
in December 1996, and came into effect on July 1, 1997. The Garrison Law
stipulates that the Hong Kong Garrison shall not interfere in the local
affairs of the HKSAR; that its duties are to perform routine defense
service, administrate military facilities, handle relevant foreign-related
military affairs, and ensure the security and stability of Hong Kong; that
its expenditures shall be borne by the Central People's Government; and
that the garrison troops shall be rotated. The law contains specific
provisions on the duties and rules of discipline of the garrison
personnel, the judicature and other questions, fundamentally guaranteeing
that the Hong Kong Garrison fulfils its defense functions along legal
lines.
The PLA Hong Kong Garrison, composed of ground, naval and air forces,
is under the direction of the Central Military Commission of the PRC.
While performing its defense duties, the Hong Kong Garrison must abide by
both national and HKSAR laws, as well as the current rules and regulations
of the PLA.
After its entry into Hong Kong, the PLA Hong Kong Garrison abided
strictly by the Basic Law and the Garrison Law, fulfilled its defense
duties within legal framework, actively organized military training,
strengthened army-building along regularization lines, studied Hong Kong's
related laws, and acquainted the rank and file with the social conditions
in Hong Kong. According to the Garrison Law, the Garrison established
working contacts with the HKSAR government, and opened the barracks on the
Stonecutters Island and Chek Chu to the public to promote Hong Kong
compatriots' understanding of and trust in the garrison troops.
It is a long-term task for the PLA Hong Kong Garrison to fulfil its
responsibility for Hong Kong's defense affairs. The garrison troops will
consistently adhere to the principle of ``one country, two systems,''
strictly abide by the Basic Law and the Garrison Law, and contribute to
the preservation of the long-term prosperity and stability of Hong
Kong.
IV. International
Security Cooperation
As a permanent member of
the United Nations Security Council and a large country in the
Asia-Pacific region, China attaches great importance to, and takes an
active part in, international security cooperation by sticking to its
principles and promises, treating others in a sincere and friendly way,
and developing cooperation. In recent years, China has actively carried
out exchanges with foreign armed forces on the basis of mutual equality
and mutual benefit. China has also actively participated in multilateral
and bilateral security dialogues and cooperation in the Asia-Pacific
region, as well as in United Nations peace-keeping operations, playing its
due part in keeping peace in the region and the world as a whole.
Foreign Military Contacts
As an important component of China's overall diplomacy, China's foreign
military contacts are subordinate to and serve the modernization of
national defense and the armed forces. China insists on dealing with its
foreign military relations independently and engaging in military
exchanges and cooperation based on the Five Principles of Peaceful
Coexistence. In its contacts with foreign military circles, China has
always advocated the principles of mutual respect, enhancing
understanding, developing friendship, mutual benefit and cooperation.
Chinese armed forces have been active in participating in multilateral
military diplomatic activities to bring the positive role of the Chinese
armed forces into full play in the sphere of international military
affairs.
China has been active in developing an omni-directional and multi-level
form of military diplomacy. So far, Chinese armed forces have established
relations with the armed forces of more than 100 other countries. China
has set up military attach*)_*'s offices in more than 90 Chinese embassies
abroad, and some 60 countries have set up their military attach's offices
in China. In the last 20 years, more than 1,300 Chinese military
delegations, of which some 180 were headed by senior officers, have
visited over 80 countries. In the meantime, 2,100-some foreign military
delegations involving several tens of thousands of persons have visited
China, more than half of which were high-ranking delegations headed by
defense ministers, commanders-in-chief of the armed forces or chiefs of
the general staff.
China has always placed the development of military contacts with
adjacent countries in a prominent position. Following the principles of
good-neighborliness and friendliness, mutual benefit and cooperation and
long-term stability, it has developed extensive and beneficial contacts
with the armed forces of those countries, especially contacts on the
senior level. In 1996 and 1997 alone, China sent more than 100 military
delegations to most of its adjacent countries, and hosted over 130
military delegations from such countries. China has placed special stress
on friendly military exchanges and cooperation with developing countries,
and has offered assistance in personnel training, equipment and health
care to over 70 countries. Since 1973, China has trained nearly 10,000
officers at all levels as well as military technicians for developing
countries, and sent over 8,000 experts to those countries. China is
enthusiastic for expanding military relations with the United States and
other Western countries in Europe. Proceeding from the objective of
safeguarding world peace and the fundamental interests of the people all
over the world, Chinese armed forces have successively resumed and
improved their relations with the armed forces of those countries on the
principle of increasing dialogue and narrowing differences, resulting in
the deepening of mutual understanding.
Since the beginning of the 1990s China's naval vessels have visited
nearly a score of countries. From March to May 1997, two formations of
Chinese naval vessels made friendly visits to the United States, Mexico,
Chile, Peru, Thailand, the Philippines and Malaysia, which have enhanced
the friendship between the armed forces of China and the armed forces and
people of those countries.
In their foreign contacts, Chinese armed forces stress technological
exchanges in specialized fields. They have developed extensive exchanges
and cooperation with armed forces in other parts of the world in the
fields of scientific research, academic studies, military education, armed
forces administration, culture, sports, and medical and hygiene work.
The positive, extensive foreign military contacts on the part of the
Chinese armed forces have promoted mutual understanding and trust between
the PLA and other armed forces. The Chinese armed forces, which have gone
among the international community, have presented themselves before the
world as a civilized force and a force of peace, a force which has made
its due contributions to keeping regional peace and peace throughout the
world.
Promoting Confidence-Building
Measures
China places great stress on and actively promotes cooperation in
confidence-building measures (CBM), considering the establishment of
mutual trust between nations as an effective way to maintain security. In
recent years, China has reached agreements with some neighboring countries
on confidence-building measures and reduction of military forces in border
areas, which is an important step China has taken to develop relations
with other countries and promote regional peace and stability. These
agreements reflect a new kind of security concept vigorously advocated by
China and embody some principles and spirit of universal significance for
Asian-Pacific security dialogues and cooperation. These include mutual and
equal security; seeking security by establishing mutual trust, dialogue
and cooperation without interfering in the internal affairs of other
countries and without aiming at a third party; preventing military forces
from threatening or harming other countries' security and stability;
implementing and sticking to a national defense policy that is defensive
in nature; adopting suitable confidence-building measures in border and
disputed areas on a bilateral basis; and engaging in friendly contacts
between military forces.
In April 1996, China and Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan
signed the Agreement on Confidence-Building in the Military Field Along
the Border Areas, which stipulates that military forces deployed in the
border areas shall not be used to attack each other; each party shall
refrain from staging military exercises directing against the other; there
shall be restrictions on the military exercises in terms of scale, area
and the number of such exercises; all the important military activities of
one party in the areas between the border and 100 kilometers from the
border line shall be notified to the other which shall be invited to
observe the troop exercises; measures shall be taken to prevent dangerous
military activities and enhance friendly exchanges of their armed forces
in the border areas.
In November 1996, China and India signed the Agreement on
Confidence-Building Measures in the Military Field Along the Line of
Actual Control in the China-India Border Areas. The agreement provides
that each side should not engage in military activities that threaten the
other side or undermines peace, tranquility and stability in the border
areas; that they should strictly respect and observe the line of actual
control in the border areas and neither side should overstep the line of
actual control in their activities pending ultimate resolution of the
boundary question; that they should reduce or limit the size of field
army, border defense forces, para-military forces and any other mutually
agreed category of armed forces and armaments deployed in the mutually
agreed geographical zones along the line of actual control to the mutually
agreed ceilings; that each side shall refrain from staging military
exercises directing against the other in the close proximity of the line
of actual control in the border areas and restrict the scale of military
exercises and provide prior notification to the other with regard to
military exercises of certain scale in the close proximity of the line of
actual control in the border areas; that they should prevent air
intrusions by military aircraft across the line of actual control and
dangerous military activities in the areas along the line of actual
control; that both sides should strengthen exchanges and cooperation
between their military personnel and establishments in the border areas
along the line of actual control.
In addition, in 1994, China and Russia signed the Agreement on
Prevention of Dangerous Military Activities and the Joint Statement by the
President of the People's Republic of China and the President of the
Russian Federation on Non-First-Use of Nuclear Weapons and Detargeting of
Strategic Nuclear Weapons Against Each Other. In January 1998, China and
the United States signed the Agreement Between the Ministry of National
Defense of the PRC and the Department of Defense of the USA on
Establishing a Consultation Mechanism to Strengthen Military Maritime
Safety. In June of the same year, President Jiang Zemin of China and
President Clinton of the United States announced that the two sides had
decided not to target each other with the strategic nuclear weapons under
their respective control. In addition, confidential direct redline
telephone communication links have been established between the head of
state of China and the heads of state of Russia and the United States.
Regional Security Cooperation
China advocates regional-security dialogue and cooperation at different
levels, through various channels and in different forms. Such dialogue and
cooperation should follow these principles: participation on an equal
footing, reaching unanimity through consultation, seeking common ground
while reserving differences, and proceeding in an orderly way and step by
step. China has participated in the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), Conference
on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia (CICA), Council on
Security Cooperation in Asia and Pacific Region (CSCAP), Northeast Asia
Cooperation Dialogue (NEACD) and other activities, holding that all
countries should further mutual understanding and trust by discussions on
security issues through these important governmental and non-governmental
channels, so as to promote regional peace and stability.
China has attended all the ARF foreign minister meetings and ARF senior
official meetings. Chinese representatives of foreign and defense affairs
have attended official and unofficial meetings within the framework of the
forum, their topics of discussion including promotion of
confidence-building measures, peace keeping, maritime search and rescue,
the handling of emergencies and disaster relief, preventative diplomacy,
non-proliferation, and guiding principles. In 1996 China and the
Philippines jointly sponsored the Conference on Confidence-Building
Measures in Beijing. Between sessions of the conference, which was crowned
with success, foreign representatives were invited to visit Chinese
military units and observe military exercises. China supports the ARF's
creative explorations for the promotion of confidence-building measures
and has made a series of constructive suggestions and opinions in this
regard. For example, China advocates development of military medicine,
science of military law and multilateral cooperation on conversion of
military technologies and facilities for civilian use. It encourages the
exchange of high-level visits by senior military officers, and port calls
by naval vessels, as well as exchanges of military personnel between
different countries, and supports cooperation in emergency rescue and
disaster relief, maritime navigation safety, and marine environmental
protection. In addition, every year China submits to the forum a statement
on national defense policy and other related documents.
China has always been an active participant in the process of the CICA
initiated by Kazakhstan, regarding the purpose of the conference as
basically suiting China's security goal in Asia. It suggests that the
conference develop steadily with full consideration of Asia's regional
peculiarities and diversities. In 1996 China formally joined the CSCAP,
and in 1997 established the CSCAP China Committee, which has always
conscientiously participated in the council's activities. Since 1993, when
the NEACD was founded, China has attended all NEACD meetings and, in 1996,
hosted its fourth conference in Beijing. Along with other member states,
China has also helped the NEACD to achieve unanimity on the guiding
principle of cooperation between Northeast Asian countries.
China has held consultations in different forms with the United States,
Russia, Japan, France, Canada and Australia on issues of common interest
in the areas of security and defense. Officials and scholars of China's
Ministry of National Defense and other related departments have
participated, in increasing breadth and depth, in various discussions and
other activities on Asian-Pacific security, which has promoted
understanding and trust between China and the countries concerned, and
shown China's positive intentions and efforts to maintain lasting peace in
the Asia-Pacific region.
Participating in the UN Peace-Keeping
Operations
As a permanent member of the UN Security Council, China has
consistently engaged in efforts to maintain international peace and
security. It cherishes and supports the role of the United Nations in
keeping international peace and security under the guidance of the
principles of the Charter of the United Nations. In order to help UN
peace-keeping operations achieve success and develop in a healthy way,
China holds that the following guiding principles should be stipulated and
followed:
-- The aims and principles of the Charter of the United Nations must be
adhered to, especially the principles of respecting the sovereignty of all
countries and non-interference in other countries' internal affairs.
-- Disputes must be settled using peaceful means, such as mediation,
good office and negotiation. Compulsory means should not be adopted
indiscreetly, nor should military means be resorted to even for
humanitarian ends.
-- Double standards should be opposed. The policies and views of any
one country or a few countries should not be imposed on the UN Security
Council, and military interference by a small number of countries under
the guise of the UN should not be allowed.
-- In peace-keeping operations, the following principles, which have
proved to be effective in the past, should be adhered to: obtaining
agreement from the country concerned beforehand, strictly observing
neutrality and prohibiting the use of force except for self-defense.
-- Be practical and realistic. A peace-keeping operation should not be
undertaken when conditions are not yet ripe, nor should a peace-keeping
force become a party to a conflict, which would be a deviation from the
fundamental purpose of peace-keeping operations.
Adhering to the above principles, China has participated in UN
peace-keeping operations. In 1990, China began to assign military
observers to UN peace-keeping operations; since then it has sent 437
military observers in 32 groups to join six UN peace-keeping operations,
viz, the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) in the
Middle East, United Nations Iraq-Kuwait Observation Mission (UNIKOM), Un
ited Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC), United Nations
Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO), United Nations
Operation in Mozambique (ONUMOZ) and United Nations Observer Mission in
Liberia (UNOMIL).
In 1992, the Chinese government dispatched an engineer unit to support
the UNTAC peace-keeping operations. A total of 800 men were sent in two
batches, who, in 18 months, repaired or extended four airports, repaired
four highways totaling 640 kilometers, built or rebuilt 47 bridges and
completed many other service projects, making useful contributions to the
successful operations of the United Nations peace-keeping forces in
Cambodia.
China still has 32 military observers serving with the UNTSO, UNIKOM
and MINURSO. In May 1997, the Chinese government decided that in principle
China would take part in the UN's stand-by arrangements and would provide
military observers, civilian policemen, and engineering, medical,
transportation and other logistic service teams in due time for UN
peace-keeping operations.
Chinese personnel assisting UN peace-keeping operations have
conscientiously fulfilled their responsibilities and made great
contributions to world peace. Some of them have even sacrificed their
lives. In the years to come, China will continue to participate in UN
peace-keeping operations in a positive and down-to-earth
manner.
V. Arms Control
and Disarmament
Since the end of the cold war
the international security situation has tended to relax, and great
advances have been made in international arms control and disarmament. The
Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling
and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction (CWC) was concluded
in January 1993, and came into effect in April 1997. The Treaty on the
Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) was indefinitely extended in
May, 1995. The Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) was opened for
signature in the New York UN headquarters in September 1996.
Nuclear-weapon-free zones continue to expand. The Protocol on Blinding
Laser Weapons and the Amended Protocol on Prohibitions or Restrictions on
the Use of Mines, Booby-Traps and Other Devices attached to the Convention
on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons
Which May Be Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate
Effects (Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons) were adopted in
October 1995 and May 1996, respectively. And in June 1997, the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) passed a protocol for the
purpose of increasing the effectiveness of safeguards.
But in spite of such progress, there are still some problems crying out
for solutions in the sphere of disarmament. The United States and Russia
still keep their large nuclear arsenals. In addition, a few military
powers continue to stick to their cold war mentality and nuclear
deterrence policy, strenuously developing highly advanced and
sophisticated weapons, especially advanced missile defense systems. The
nuclear tests conducted by India, and then by Pakistan, in May 1998 have
not only seriously impeded international non-proliferation efforts, but
have produced a grave impact on regional and world peace and stability.
The Chinese government highly stresses the importance of arms control
and disarmament work, and takes it as an important component of its
overall diplomacy and defense policy. The Chinese government holds that
the international community should promote fair, rational, comprehensive
and balanced arms control and disarmament; the purpose of disarmament
should be to reinforce, not weaken or undermine, the security of all
countries; the universality of the international arms control treaties
should be enhanced; new treaties should be concluded through a broadly
representative multilateral negotiations mechanism; those countries having
the largest and most sophisticated conventional and nuclear arsenals
should continue to fulfil their special responsibilities for disarmament;
efforts should be made to prevent a few countries directing the target of
disarmament at a broad spectrum of developing countries in order to
deprive them of their legitimate right and means for self-defense, at the
same time taking advantage of their own advanced military technology and
superior economic strength to seek absolute security and military
superiority; the existing discriminatory and exclusive export control
mechanisms and arrangements should be overhauled and rectified
comprehensively, and a fair and rational international non-proliferation
system should be set up through negotiations on the basis of universal
participation.
China has steadfastly attended multilateral negotiations on arms
control and disarmament, and some related international conferences. In
April 1997, China and Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan signed
the Agreement on Mutual Reduction of Military Forces in the Border Areas.
It stipulates that the five countries shall reduce their military forces
in the border areas to the minimum level compatible with their friendly
and good-neighborly relations, a level that shall not go beyond their
defense needs; none of the parties shall use or threaten to use force
against the other party or parties, neither shall they seek unilateral
military superiority; they shall reduce and limit the size of their ground
force, air force, air aviation and border guard units as well as the
quantity of main categories of their armaments and military equipment
deployed in the border areas as deep as 100 kilometers from their border;
they shall determine the ceilings for the reduced size, modality and the
time limit for the reduction of military forces; combat vessels shall not
be deployed in rivers in the above-mentioned areas; they shall exchange
relevant information and data on the military forces in the border areas;
and they shall monitor and verify the implementation of the Agreement.
China has also set up bilateral arms control consultation mechanisms with
many other countries. China has signed or ratified almost all the
multilateral arms control treaties, and faithfully fulfilled its
obligations under those treaties, making a positive contribution to the
progress of international arms control and disarmament.
The Issue of Nuclear Weapons
As a nuclear-weapon state, China vigorously supports and participates
in the international non-nuclear proliferation efforts, promotes the
process of nuclear disarmament and works hard for the realization of the
final goal of the complete prohibition and thorough destruction of nuclear
weapons worldwide.
China has consistently advocated the complete prohibition and thorough
destruction of nuclear weapons. At the 51st Session of the UN General
Assembly in 1996 China clearly put forward a five-point proposal on
nuclear disarmament: 1. The major nuclear powers should abandon the
nuclear deterrence policy, and the states having the largest nuclear
arsenals should continue to drastically reduce their nuclear weapons
stockpiles; 2. all nuclear-weapon states should commit themselves not to
be the first to use nuclear weapons at any time and in any circumstances,
undertake unconditionally not to use or threaten to use nuclear weapons
against non-nuclear-weapon states or nuclear-weapon-free zones, and
conclude a legally binding international document as soon as possible; 3.
all states which have deployed nuclear weapons outside their borders
should withdraw all these weapons home, and all nuclear-weapon states
should pledge to support the proposal on establishing nuclear-weapon-free
zones, respect the status of such zones and undertake corresponding
obligations; 4. no state should develop or deploy outer space weapons or
missile defense systems, which harm strategic security and stability; 5.
all states should negotiate and conclude an international convention on
the complete prohibition and thorough destruction of nuclear weapons.
From the first day it possessed nuclear weapons, China has solemnly
declared its determination not to be the first to use such weapons at any
time and in any circumstances, and later undertook unconditionally not to
use or threaten to use nuclear weapons against non-nuclear-weapon states
or nuclear-weapon-free zones. China vigorously supports the efforts of the
relevant countries to establish nuclear-free zones on a voluntary basis,
and has signed and approved the relevant protocols of the Treaty for the
Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean (Treaty
of Tlatelolco), the South Pacific Nuclear-Free Zone Treaty (Treaty of
Rarotonga) and the African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty (Treaty of
Pelindaba). In April 1995 China issued an official statement, reiterating
its commitment to unconditionally provide non-nuclear-weapon states and
nuclear-weapon-free zones with negative security assurance, and for the
first time promised to provide them with positive security assurance.
In March 1992 China acceded to the NPT and has faithfully fulfilled its
international obligations to prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons
and made contributions to the indefinite extension of the treaty. China
was represented at the negotiations on the CTBT from beginning to end, and
signed it on September 24, 1996, the first day the treaty was opened for
signature. China supports the early conclusion of the Convention on
Banning the Production of Fissile Materials for Nuclear Weapons or Other
Nuclear Explosive Devices (FMCT). For this purpose, the foreign ministers
of China and the United States issued a joint statement in October 1994,
saying that the two countries would make joint efforts to promote an early
conclusion of a multilateral, non-discriminatory and effectively
verifiable FMCT. In April 1997, China and four other nuclear-weapon states
-- the United States, Russia, Britain and France -- issued a statement,
reiterating their stand for concluding, through negotiation, a FMCT as
soon as possible on the basis of the mandate contained in the Shannon
Report. China supports the IAEA's Program for Strengthening the
Effectiveness and Promoting the Efficiency of the Safeguard System (93 + 2
Program), and promises that, on the basis of voluntary safeguard, China
will negotiate and conclude with the IAEA a legally binding document at a
proper time, and will adopt measures corresponding to the obligations
China undertakes in accordance with the first article of the NPT.
As the international situation is tending to relax and relations
between the major powers continue to improve, China believes that the
conditions are now ripe for nuclear-weapon states to undertake not to be
the first to use nuclear weapons against each other. So, in January 1994,
China formally presented a draft for the Treaty on the Non-First-Use of
Nuclear Weapons to the United States, Russia, Britain and France,
proposing that the five nuclear-weapon states hold discussions on the
treaty as soon as possible. China holds that such a treaty will help to
promote mutual trust among nuclear-weapon states and further reduce the
danger of nuclear war. While energetically promoting negotiations for
conclusion of a multilateral treaty, China also actively seeks, together
with other nuclear-weapon states, to undertake, on a bilateral basis, not
to be the first to use nuclear weapons against each other. So far, China
and Russia have already made such a promise to each other.
The Issue of Chemical and Biological
Weapons
The Chinese government has always stood for the complete prohibition
and thorough destruction of chemical weapons. China signed the CWC in
January 1993, ratified the convention in December 1996 and deposited the
instruments of ratification on April 25, 1997, thus becoming an original
signatory state to the CWC. China supports the purpose and goals of the
CWC, and advocates that chemical weapons and facilities for their
production should be destroyed as soon as possible, in accordance with the
related provisions in the CWC. Meanwhile, China holds that the convention
should promote international economic, trade, and scientific and
technological exchanges in the field of chemical industry, ensuring that
chemical industry technology truly benefits mankind.
China has been active and conscientious in fulfilling the obligations
stipulated in the CWC. It delivered the initial declaration and annual
declaration in time and in their entirety and has accepted inspections by
the convention. It has also participated in every one of the convention's
executive council meetings and the two conferences of states parties.
China has been a victim of chemical weapons. Large quantities of
chemical weapons abandoned by Japanese aggressor troops are found in China
to this day, which still threaten the lives and property of the local
people and the environment in which they live. In view of this, China
demands that, in keeping with the stipulations of the convention, any
country that has left chemical weapons in another country destroy, as soon
as possible, such weapons wholly and thoroughly.
China advocates the complete prohibition and thorough destruction of
biological weapons. It opposes the production, development and stockpiling
of biological weapons by any country, and the proliferation of such
weapons and related technology in any form by any country. In November
1984 China acceded to the Convention on the Prohibition of the
Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological)
and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction (BWC). As a state party to the
BWC, China has fully and conscientiously fulfilled its obligations under
the convention. Since 1987 China has, year after year, reported to the
United Nations on convention-related information and data concerning
confidence-building measures, in accordance with the decisions of the
Review Conferences of the BWC.
Having suffered grievously from biological weapons attacks in the past,
China supports work that helps comprehensively to strengthen the
effectiveness of the convention. It has actively participated in the work
of drawing up a Protocol of the Ad Hoc Group of States Parties to the BWC
established in 1994, and has made contributions to the progress of the
negotiations on the Protocol. China holds, in view of the complexity of
the problems relating to the verification mechanism, that every country
should, in a down-to-earth way, seek effective and feasible verification
measures, and formulate concrete steps to prevent abuse of verification,
and to protect the rightful commercial and security secrets of states
parties. China considers that, while improving the convention's
verification mechanism, international cooperation and exchanges among
states parties in the sphere of bio-technology for peaceful purposes
should also be strengthened.
The Issue of Keeping Outer Space
Weapon-Free
Outer space belongs to all mankind, and should be used exclusively for
peaceful purposes to benefit mankind. To this end, China stands for the
complete prohibition and thorough destruction of weapons deployed in outer
space. It opposes the development of anti-satellite weapons. China
maintains that the international community, the big powers with the
capacity to utilize outer space in particular, should take the following
realistic steps to prevent a weaponized outer space: A complete ban on
weapons of any kind in outer space, including anti-missile and
anti-satellite weapons, so as to keep outer space free of weapons; a ban
on the use of force or conduct of hostilities in, from or to outer space;
and all countries should undertake neither to experiment with, produce or
deploy outer space weapons nor to utilize outer space to seek strategic
advantages on the ground, for example, using disposition of the important
parts of ground anti-missile systems in outer space for the purpose of
developing strategic defensive weapons. In addition, negotiations should
be held as soon as possible for the conclusion of a legally-binding
international agreement with the above-mentioned contents.
Since the beginning of the 1980s, as one of the co-sponsors of the UN
General Assembly resolutions on keeping outer space weapon-free, China has
promoted negotiations on this problem at the Geneva Conference on
Disarmament and through other multilateral mechanisms. As early as at the
founding of the Ad Hoc Committee of the Conference on Disarmament on the
Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space, China submitted to it a paper
on China's Position on the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space
(CD/579). Many countries have supported China's position.
The Issue of Anti-Personnel
Landmines
China has all along attached great importance to the problem of threat
to innocent people caused by the indiscriminate use of anti-personnel
landmines (APLs). It is in favor of imposing proper and rational
restrictions on the use and transfer of APLs in a bid to achieve the
ultimate objective of comprehensive prohibition of such landmines through
a phased approach. In the meantime, the Chinese government maintains that,
in addressing the problem of APLs, consideration should be given to both
humanitarian concern and the legitimate defense requirements of sovereign
states. To safeguard the safety of their people by sovereign states
through legitimate military means, including the use of APLs in accordance
with the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations
itself is part and parcel of humanitarianism.
As a country with long land borders, China has to reserve the right to
use APLs on its territory pending an alternative solution is found and its
requirements in security and defense capability are catered for. China's
use of APLs under legitimate circumstances is entirely aimed at preventing
foreign military interference and aggression so as to maintain national
unity and territorial integrity and safeguard its people's well-being.
This not only represents China's legitimate national security and defense
requirements, but also accords with the relevant provisions of the Charter
of the United Nations on the right to self-defense.
The PLA has always exercised strict control over the use of APLs and
prohibited the indiscriminate use and laying of such landmines while
actively studying the possible alternatives to APLs. China has also
actively participated in the revision of the Landmine Protocol (Protocol
II) to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW) and the
discussions on the question of APLs at the UN Conference on Disarmament.
The Chinese government has all along adopted a very prudent and
responsible attitude toward landmine export. In December 1994, China
joined in the UN General Assembly's consultation on its resolution
concerning the moratorium on the export of APLs. In April 1996, the
Chinese government solemnly declared its suspension of export of APLs that
are not compatible with those APLs provided for in the Amended Landmine
Protocol to the CCW.
The Chinese government is of the view that the clearance of APLs is
part and parcel of the overall efforts in eliminating the threat to
innocent civilians resulting from the indiscriminate use of such
landmines. It has consistently adopted a responsible attitude toward
post-war demining question and has done considerable fruitful work in this
regard. From the beginning of 1992 to the end of 1994, the PLA conducted
its first large-scale demining operation in the border areas of Yunnan
Province and the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, cleared a total of over
one million landmines and explosive devices and destroyed nearly 200 tons
of disused or de-activated ammunitions and explosive devices, covering an
area of 108 square kilometers with over 170 border trade passes and ports
re-opened, and over 30,000 hectares of farmland, pasture and mountain
forests restored. At the end of 1997, the Chinese government decided to
conduct its second large-scale demining operation in the above areas
starting from November 1997 up to December 1999.
The Chinese government has always done its utmost to assist
APL-affected countries. It furnished Cambodia and some other mine-affected
countries with mine-detection/clearance equipment, and also helped train
demining personnel for these countries, thus contributing to their smooth
post-war rehabilitation. In November 1997, the Chinese President Jiang
Zemin declared that China would continue to actively support international
demining efforts and cooperation, including donation and provision of
assistance in the fields of demining training, technology and equipment
through the relevant international demining funds. The Chinese government
also sent observers to participate in the Signing Ceremony of the
Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and
Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on Their Destruction and the
international demining roundtable (Mine Action Forum) held from 2 to 4
December 1997 in Ottawa.
Control of the Export of Sensitive Materials and
Military Equipment
The Chinese government agrees that necessary measures should be adopted
to apply effective international control to the transfer of sensitive
materials and technologies in order to prevent the proliferation of
weapons of mass destruction and their carriers. However, at the same time,
China holds that international efforts to prevent such proliferation
should follow the principle of fairness and rationality, and opposes a
double standard whereby anti-proliferation is used as a pretext to
infringe upon the sovereignty of other countries and harm normal
international cooperation and exchanges in the fields of economy, trade
and science and technology.
China attaches great importance to control over the export of sensitive
materials, and has implemented a series of administration measures
regarding the transfer of sensitive materials on the basis of
international practice.
Regarding nuclear exports, China, a signatory to the NPT, has pursued a
policy of not supporting, encouraging or engaging in the proliferation of
nuclear weapons and not assisting any other country to develop such
weapons. It has laid down three principles regarding nuclear exports: They
should serve peaceful purposes only; they should accept the safeguards of
the IAEA; and they should not be retransferred to a third country without
China's consent.
In November 1991 the Chinese government declared that it would report
on a continuing basis to the IAEA any export to or import from
non-nuclear-weapon states of nuclear materials of one effective kilogram
or above. In July 1993 China officially promised that it would voluntarily
report to the IAEA any imports or exports of nuclear materials, nuclear
equipment and related non-nuclear materials. In May 1996 China promised
that it would not offer help to nuclear facilities which had not accepted
the IAEA's safeguards, including bans on exports of nuclear materials and
personnel or technology exchanges and cooperation. In May 1997, the
Chinese government published the Circular on Questions Pertaining to the
Strict Implementation of China's Nuclear Exports Policy, which explicitly
stipulates that no nuclear materials, facilities or related technologies
exported by China may be supplied to or used by nuclear facilities which
have not accepted the IAEA's safeguards. The circular also has strict
provisions regarding exports of dual-use nuclear-related materials. In May
1997, China sent observers to attend a meeting of the Zangger Committee,
one of the mechanisms of international nuclear export control, and
formally joined the committee in October of that year. In September 1997,
the Chinese government issued the Regulations of the People's Republic of
China on Nuclear Export Control, banning any kind of assistance to nuclear
facilities which have not accepted the IAEA's safeguards. In addition,
nuclear exports are monopolized by the units designated by the State
Council and can not be operated by any other units or individuals. The
state practices a licensing system for nuclear exports, and has drawn up
the Detailed List of Nuclear Export Control in light of the commonly
accepted listings of this kind in the international sphere. On June 10,
1998, China promulgated the Regulations on the Control of the Export of
Dual-Use Nuclear Materials and Related Technology, imposing strict control
on the export of nuclear-related dual-use materials and related
technology.
China has always been cautious and responsible regarding the exports
administration of chemicals. It does not export chemicals that can be used
to manufacture chemical weapons, nor does it export related technologies
and equipment. It supports normal international cooperation in chemical
industry and exchanges of related scientific and technological materials
in accordance with the CWC, and opposes any export control mechanism
conflicting with the purpose of the convention.
In September 1990, the Chinese government drafted measures for strict
control of the export of chemicals and their production technologies and
equipment. In December 1995, it issued the Regulations of the People's
Republic of China on the Supervision and Control of Chemicals, and, in
accordance with these regulations, issued the List of Chemicals Subject to
Supervision and Control and the Bylaws for the Implementation of the
Regulations in June 1996, stipulating that import and export of related
chemicals are under the centralized management of the competent
departments of the chemical industry under the State Council and operated
by special companies designated by such departments.
With regard to the transfer of military equipment and related
technology, China respects the right of every country to independent or
collective self-defense and to acquisition of weapons for this purpose in
accordance with the principles contained in the Charter of the United
Nations, but at the same time it is concerned about the adverse effects on
world security and regional stability arising from excessive accumulations
of weaponry.
For many years until the early 1980s, China did not engage in weapons
exports, and since then the volume of such exports has been limited.
Beginning in the mid-1980s, China's export of military products has been
on the decrease: The volume of contracted business was just over two
billion US dollars-worth in 1987, dropped to US$ 600 million-worth in
1991, and did not exceed one billion US dollars-worth in the following
years. The 1993-97 records of the UN register of conventional arms exports
and imports of various countries show that China's exports of conventional
weapons are small compared to those of some other countries.
China practices strict control of the transfer of conventional military
equipment and related technologies, and observes the following principles:
The export of weapons must help the recipient nation enhance its
capability for legitimate self-defense; it must not impair peace, security
and stability of the relevant region and the world as a whole; and it must
not be used to interfere in the recipient state's internal affairs. Since
1992 China has participated in the United Nations' register of
conventional arms transfers (Tables 5 and 6).
Table 5 Data of China's Participation in the United Nations
Register of Conventional Arms Transfers in 1992-1996
(Exports)
| Item |
1992 |
1993 |
1994 |
1995 |
1996 |
Total |
| Combat tanks |
97 |
121 |
82 |
51 |
3 |
354 |
| Armored cars |
2 |
|
|
|
|
2 |
| Large-caliber guns |
166 |
|
|
20 |
18 |
204 |
| Operational aircraft |
|
68 |
|
|
5 |
73 |
| Attack helicopters |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Naval vessels |
2 |
|
6 |
1 |
5 |
14 |
| Missiles and launchers |
24 |
20 |
|
18 |
106 |
168 |
Table 6 Data of China's Participation in the United Nations
Register of Conventional Arms Transfers in 1992-1996
(Imports)
| Item |
1992 |
1993 |
1994 |
1995 |
1996 |
Total |
| Combat tanks |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Armored cars |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Large-caliber guns |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Operational aircraft |
26 |
|
|
|
22 |
48 |
| Attack helicopters |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Naval vessels |
|
1 |
|
1 |
|
2 |
| Missiles and launchers |
144 |
|
|
|
|
144 |
In October 1997, the Chinese government published the Regulations of
the People's Republic of China on the Control of Military Products Export,
stipulating that a licensing system shall be practiced for China's weapons
exports, and all external transfers of domestic military products shall be
carried out by the departments authorized by the government and companies
approved and registered by the government. The Regulations state that the
business activities of such departments and companies must remain strictly
within the projects approved by the government, that contracts of military
products transfers must require approval from the relevant competent
government departments before taking effect, and that important items of
arms exports must be submitted to the State Council and the Central
Military Commission for approval.
China has been consistently cautious and responsible regarding the
transfer of missiles. China is not a member state of the Missile
Technology Control Regime (MTCR) and has not joined its formulation and
revision, but, in accordance with China's consistent position on
non-proliferation and its principles concerning arms exports, the Chinese
government promised to observe the then guidelines and parameters of the
MTCR in February 1992. In October 1994, China reaffirmed its promise and
undertook the obligation of not exporting ground-to-ground missiles
inherently capable of reaching a range of at least 300 kilometers with a
payload of at least 500 kilograms. In line with the above policy, China
has exercised strict and effective control over the export of missiles and
related materials and has never done anything in violation of its
commitments.
The principles and measures to prevent the proliferation of weaponry
and unwarranted transfers of military equipment that China has
consistently upheld have helped to promote the development of
international arms control and disarmament in a wholesome way, and to
maintain world peace and regional
stability.
